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English Cheat Sheet

This cheat sheet is a concise guide to the building blocks of English sentences and grammar. Use it to quickly review parts of speech and sentence structure.

Core Components of English​

1. Nouns​

  • Function: Name people, places, things, or ideas.
  • Examples:
    1. cat
    2. city
    3. happiness
    4. Richard
  • Usage Example:
    1. The cat sat on the mat.

2. Pronouns​

  • Function: Replace nouns to avoid repetition.
  • Types:
    1. Subject (I, he)
    2. Object (me, us)
    3. Possessive (my, their)
  • Usage Example:
    1. She gave him her book.

3. Verbs​

  • Function: Show actions or states of being. They change form based on tense and subject.
  • Examples:
    1. run
    2. is
    3. have
    4. study
  • Usage Example:
    1. He runs every morning.

4. Objects​

  • Function: Receive the action of the verb.
  • Types:
    1. Direct (the thing being acted on)
    2. Indirect (the recipient of the direct object)
  • Usage Example:
    1. She gave him (indirect) the book (direct).

5. Adjectives​

  • Function: Describe or modify nouns.
  • Examples:
    1. big
    2. blue
    3. interesting
  • Usage Example:
    1. The big blue car is interesting.

6. Adverbs​

  • Function: Describe or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They often tell how, when, or where.
  • Examples:
    1. quickly
    2. very
    3. often
    4. here
  • Usage Example:
    1. She runs quickly.
    2. He is very smart.

7. Determiners​

  • Function: Introduce nouns and specify which one(s).
  • Examples:
    1. a
    2. an
    3. the
    4. this
    5. some
    6. every
  • Usage Example:
    1. This apple is delicious.

8. Prepositions​

  • Function: Show relationships between nouns and other words (e.g., location, time, direction).
  • Examples:
    1. in
    2. on
    3. at
    4. by
    5. with
    6. under
  • Usage Example:
    1. The book is on the table.

9. Conjunctions​

  • Function: Connect words, phrases, or clauses.
  • Examples:
    1. and
    2. but
    3. or
    4. because
    5. although
  • Usage Example:
    1. I want tea and coffee.

10. Interjections​

  • Function: Express strong emotion. They are often followed by an exclamation mark.
  • Examples:
    1. Wow!
    2. Ouch!
    3. Hey!
    4. Oh no!
  • Usage Example:
    1. Wow! That was amazing!

Detailed Verb System​

Verb Tenses​

  • Simple Present: Describes habitual actions or general truths.
    1. I work every day.
    2. She plays soccer on weekends.
  • Simple Past: Describes actions completed in the past.
    1. I worked yesterday.
    2. They played a great game.
  • Simple Future: Describes actions that will happen in the future.
    1. I will work tomorrow.
    2. She will play in the tournament.
  • Present Continuous: Describes actions happening right now or ongoing.
    1. I am working on a project.
    2. They are playing outside.
  • Past Continuous: Describes actions that were ongoing in the past.
    1. I was working when you called.
    2. They were playing while it rained.
  • Future Continuous: Describes actions that will be ongoing in the future.
    1. I will be working at 5 PM.
    2. She will be playing during the event.
  • Present Perfect: Describes actions completed at an unspecified time or that started in the past and continue to the present.
    1. I have worked here for five years.
    2. She has played the piano since childhood.
  • Past Perfect: Describes actions completed before another action in the past.
    1. I had worked there before moving.
    2. They had played before it started raining.
  • Future Perfect: Describes actions that will be completed before a specific time in the future.
    1. I will have worked 10 hours by then.
    2. She will have played all her favorite songs.
  • Present Perfect Continuous: Describes actions that started in the past and are still ongoing.
    1. I have been working all day.
    2. They have been playing since morning.
  • Past Perfect Continuous: Describes actions that were ongoing before another action in the past.
    1. I had been working for hours before the meeting.
    2. She had been playing for an hour when I arrived.
  • Future Perfect Continuous: Describes actions that will be ongoing up until a specific time in the future.
    1. I will have been working for 8 hours by 6 PM.
    2. They will have been playing for two hours by the time we join.

Verb Forms​

  • Base form: The simplest form of the verb.
    1. work
    2. play
  • -ing form (present participle/gerund): Used for continuous tenses or as a noun.
    1. working
    2. playing
  • -ed form (past participle): Used for past tenses or perfect tenses.
    1. worked
    2. played

Conjugation​

  • 1st person: I work, We work
  • 2nd person: You work
  • 3rd person: He/She/It works, They work

Subject-Verb Agreement​

  • The verb changes to match the subject.
    • Examples: He works hard. They work together.

Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs​

  • To be: am, is, are, was, were
  • To have: have, has, had
  • To do: do, does, did
    • Examples: I am working. She has finished. They did not go.
  • Express ability, possibility, permission, or obligation.
    • Examples: I can swim. You should study. They might come.

Phrasal Verbs​

  • Verb + preposition/adverb to create a new meaning.
    • Examples: She gave up smoking. It turned out well. Carry on with your work.

Essential Phrasal Verbs​

  • Function: Master the most common phrasal verbs used in everyday English conversations.
  • Common Daily Phrasal Verbs:
    1. wake up - I wake up at 7 AM every day.
    2. get up - Please get up from the chair.
    3. put on - Put on your jacket, it's cold.
    4. take off - Take off your shoes before entering.
    5. look for - I'm looking for my keys.
  • Relationship Phrasal Verbs:
    1. get along - We get along very well.
    2. fall out - They fell out over money.
    3. make up - Let's make up after our argument.
    4. ask out - He asked her out on a date.
    5. break up - They broke up last month.
  • Work/Study Phrasal Verbs:
    1. hand in - Please hand in your homework.
    2. work out - Let's work out this problem together.
    3. figure out - I need to figure out this puzzle.
    4. look up - Look up the word in the dictionary.
    5. write down - Write down the important information.
  • Communication Phrasal Verbs:
    1. speak up - Please speak up, I can't hear you.
    2. bring up - Don't bring up that topic again.
    3. point out - Let me point out the mistake.
    4. find out - I need to find out the truth.
    5. talk over - Let's talk over the plan.
  • Movement Phrasal Verbs:
    1. come back - What time will you come back?
    2. go away - The pain will go away soon.
    3. run into - I ran into an old friend yesterday.
    4. drop off - I'll drop off the package.
    5. pick up - Can you pick up some milk?
  • Problem/Solution Phrasal Verbs:
    1. deal with - How do you deal with stress?
    2. sort out - We need to sort out this issue.
    3. work on - I'm working on my English skills.
    4. give up - Don't give up on your dreams.
    5. keep up - Try to keep up with the class.
  • Usage Example: "I wake up at 7 AM, put on my clothes, and look for my keys before leaving. If I run into traffic, I call to let them know I'll be late."

Detailed Noun & Pronoun System​

Types of Nouns​

  • Common Nouns: General names for people, places, things, or ideas.
    1. teacher
    2. city
    3. book
  • Proper Nouns: Specific names (always capitalized).
    1. Richard
    2. London
    3. Microsoft
  • Concrete Nouns: Things you can touch or see.
    1. table
    2. dog
    3. car
  • Abstract Nouns: Ideas, feelings, or concepts you cannot touch.
    1. happiness
    2. freedom
    3. knowledge
  • Countable Nouns: Can be counted (have singular/plural forms).
    1. book/books
    2. child/children
    3. mouse/mice
  • Uncountable Nouns: Cannot be counted (no plural form).
    1. water
    2. music
    3. advice
  • Collective Nouns: Groups of people, animals, or things.
    1. team
    2. family
    3. flock
  • Material Nouns: Substances or materials.
    1. gold
    2. wood
    3. plastic
  • Compound Nouns: Two or more words combined.
    1. basketball
    2. mother-in-law
    3. toothbrush

Possessive Nouns​

  • Singular: Add 's to show ownership.
    1. The cat's toy.
    2. Richard's book.
  • Plural ending in 's': Add only an apostrophe.
    1. The cats' toys.
    2. The students' homework.
  • Plural not ending in 's': Add 's.
    1. The children's playground.
    2. The men's room.

Types of Pronouns​

  • Subject Pronouns: Used as the subject of a sentence.
    1. I
    2. you
    3. he
  • Object Pronouns: Used as the object of a verb or preposition.
    1. me
    2. you
    3. him
  • Possessive Pronouns: Show ownership (stand alone).
    1. mine
    2. yours
    3. his
  • Possessive Adjectives: Show ownership (before nouns).
    1. my
    2. your
    3. his
  • Reflexive Pronouns: Refer back to the subject.
    1. myself
    2. yourself
    3. himself
  • Demonstrative Pronouns: Point to specific things.
    1. this
    2. that
    3. these

Reflexive Pronouns​

  • Function: Refer back to the subject of the sentence; used when the subject and object are the same person/thing.
  • Singular Forms:
    1. myself - I hurt myself while cooking.
    2. yourself - Did you enjoy yourself at the party?
    3. himself - He taught himself to play guitar.
    4. herself - She bought herself a new dress.
    5. itself - The cat cleaned itself after eating.
  • Plural Forms:
    1. ourselves - We prepared ourselves for the exam.
    2. yourselves - You should be proud of yourselves.
    3. themselves - They introduced themselves to the group.
  • Usage Rules:
    1. When subject = object: I see myself in the mirror.
    2. For emphasis: I myself don't believe it.
    3. After prepositions: She kept the secret to herself.
    4. With "by" meaning alone: I live by myself.
    5. Never as subjects: ❌ Myself went → ✅ I went myself.
  • Usage Example: "I taught myself English by watching movies. Did you teach yourself, or did someone help you?"

Relative Pronouns​

  • Function: Connect clauses and provide more information about a noun without starting a new sentence.
  • Subject Relative Pronouns:
    1. who - The person who called is my brother.
    2. which - The book which I bought is interesting.
    3. that - The car that we saw was expensive.
  • Object Relative Pronouns:
    1. whom - The person whom I met was friendly.
    2. which - The movie which we watched was great.
    3. that - The house that they bought is beautiful.
  • Possessive & Location:
    1. whose - The student whose book was lost is here.
    2. where - The place where we met is special.
    3. when - The day when we first met was sunny.
    4. why - The reason why I called was important.
  • Usage Rules:
    1. Use "who" for people as subjects
    2. Use "whom" for people as objects (formal)
    3. Use "which" for things/animals
    4. Use "that" for people or things (restrictive)
    5. Use "whose" to show possession
  • Usage Example: "The teacher who helped me is the same person whose class I attended last year. The school where we studied is the place that I'll always remember."

Articles & Demonstratives​

Articles​

  • Function: Introduce and specify nouns; indicate whether something is specific or general.
  • Types:
    • Indefinite Articles: a, an (used for non-specific nouns)
      1. a book
      2. an apple
    • Definite Article: the (used for specific nouns)
      1. the book
      2. the apple
  • Usage Tips:
    1. Use a before words that start with a consonant sound: a dog, a university
    2. Use an before words that start with a vowel sound: an umbrella, an hour
    3. Use the when referring to something specific or previously mentioned: the car we bought

Demonstratives​

  • Function: Point to specific nouns and show their position (near or far, singular or plural).
  • Words: this, that, these, those
    1. This book is interesting. (singular, near)
    2. That car is fast. (singular, far)
    3. These cookies are delicious. (plural, near)
    4. Those houses are old. (plural, far)

Adjectives​

What are Adjectives?​

  • Function: Describe, modify, or give more information about nouns and pronouns.
  • Examples: big, blue, interesting, beautiful, tall
  • Usage: The tall man. A beautiful day. Her blue car.

Types of Adjectives​

  • Descriptive Adjectives: Describe qualities or states.
    1. happy child
    2. old house
    3. delicious food
  • Proper Adjectives: Derived from proper nouns; always capitalized.
    1. American culture
    2. Shakespearean drama
  • Possessive Adjectives: Show ownership; placed before nouns.
    1. my book
    2. your idea
    3. their house
  • Comparative Adjectives: Compare two things; often end in -er or use "more".
    1. taller
    2. smarter
    3. more beautiful
  • Superlative Adjectives: Compare three or more things; often end in -est or use "most".
    1. tallest
    2. smartest
    3. most beautiful
  • Limiting Adjectives: Restrict or specify nouns (quantity, number, etc.).
    1. some people
    2. few options
    3. every student
  • Pronominal Adjectives: Words that act as adjectives but are also pronouns.
    1. this book
    2. those shoes
    3. each person

Adjective Order​

  • General Rule: Quantity > Opinion > Size > Age > Shape > Color > Origin > Material > Purpose > Noun
    • Example: Three beautiful large old round blue Italian wooden dining tables

Adjective Usage Tips​

  • Adjectives usually come before the noun: a red apple
  • Some adjectives follow the verb: The apple is red
  • Use "more" and "most" for longer adjectives: more expensive, most comfortable

Adverbs​

What are Adverbs?​

  • Function: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs; tell how, when, where, or to what degree something happens.
  • Examples: quickly, very, often, here, always, well
  • Usage: She sings beautifully. He always arrives early. The dog barked loudly.

How to Form Adverbs​

  • Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives.
    • Examples: quick → quickly, happy → happily, slow → slowly
  • Some adverbs do not follow this pattern.
    • Examples: well, fast, hard, late

Types of Adverbs​

  • Adverbs of Manner: Describe how something happens.
    1. She speaks softly.
    2. He runs quickly.
  • Adverbs of Frequency: Describe how often something happens.
    1. always
    2. often
    3. sometimes
  • Adverbs of Place: Describe where something happens.
    1. here
    2. there
    3. everywhere
  • Adverbs of Time: Describe when something happens.
    1. now
    2. then
    3. soon
  • Adverbs of Degree: Describe the intensity or degree of an action, adjective, or another adverb.
    1. very
    2. quite
    3. too
  • Comparative and Superlative Adverbs: Compare actions.
    1. faster
    2. more carefully
    3. most quickly

Order of Adverbs in a Sentence​

  • General Rule: Manner > Place > Frequency > Time
    • Example: She sings beautifully (manner) in the shower (place) every morning (frequency) before breakfast (time).

Adverb Usage Tips​

  • Adverbs can appear in different places in a sentence: He quickly finished his homework. Quickly, he finished his homework.
  • Not all words ending in -ly are adverbs (e.g., friendly is an adjective).
  • Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives: fast, hard, late.

Quantifiers & Determiners​

What are Quantifiers & Determiners?​

  • Function: Specify quantity, amount, or which nouns you are talking about.
  • Examples:
    1. all
    2. half
    3. each
    4. every
    5. both
    6. either
    7. neither
    8. few
    9. little
    10. a lot of
    11. most
    12. much
    13. many
    14. some
    15. any
    16. enough
    17. what
    18. rather
    19. quite
  • Usage Example:
    1. All students must attend.
    2. I have a few friends.
    3. There isn't much time left.

Common Quantifiers​

  • All / Half: Refer to the whole or part of a group.
    1. All the cookies are gone.
    2. Half the class is absent.
  • Each / Every: Refer to individual members of a group.
    1. Each student has a book.
    2. Every day is a new opportunity.
  • Both / Either / Neither: Refer to two items or choices.
    1. Both answers are correct.
    2. You can take either road.
    3. Neither option is good.
  • A Few / A Little: Refer to small quantities.
    1. I have a few questions.
    2. There is a little milk left.
  • A Lot of / Most: Refer to large quantities.
    1. A lot of people like pizza.
    2. Most children enjoy games.
  • Much / Many: Refer to quantity (uncountable/countable).
    1. I don't have much money.
    2. Many students passed the test.
  • Some / Any / Enough: Refer to indefinite or sufficient quantity.
    1. Do you have any sugar?
    2. I need some help.
    3. We have enough chairs.
  • What / Rather / Quite: Used for emphasis or degree.
    1. What a surprise!
    2. It's rather cold today.
    3. The movie was quite good.

Usage Tips​

  • Use quantifiers before nouns: many books, some water, few people.
  • Some quantifiers are only used with countable nouns (many, few), others with uncountable nouns (much, little).
  • Determiners help specify which noun you mean: this book, those apples, every student.

Prepositions​

What are Prepositions?​

  • Function: Show relationships between nouns (or pronouns) and other words in a sentence, indicating location, time, direction, manner, cause, and more.
  • Examples:
    1. in
    2. on
    3. at
    4. by
    5. with
    6. under
    7. to
    8. from
    9. for
    10. about
  • Usage Example:
    1. The cat is under the table.
    2. We will meet at 5 PM.
    3. She walked to the park.

Types of Prepositions​

  • Prepositions of Time: Indicate when something happens.
    1. at (at 5 PM)
    2. on (on Monday)
    3. in (in July)
    • Usage Example: The party is on Friday.
  • Prepositions of Place: Indicate where something happens.
    1. in (in the room)
    2. on (on the table)
    3. at (at the station)
    • Usage Example: The keys are on the desk.
  • Prepositions of Manner: Indicate how something happens.
    1. by (by car)
    2. with (with a pen)
    • Usage Example: She wrote the letter with a pencil.
  • Prepositions of Direction and Motion: Indicate movement.
    1. to (go to school)
    2. from (come from work)
    • Usage Example: He walked to the store from home.
  • Prepositions of Cause, Purpose, and Reason: Indicate why something happens.
    1. for (for health)
    2. because of (because of rain)
    • Usage Example: She stayed home because of the weather.
  • Prepositional Phrases: Groups of words beginning with a preposition.
    1. in front of
    2. next to
    3. because of
    • Usage Example: The car is in front of the house.

Usage Tips​

  • Prepositions are usually followed by a noun or pronoun: in the box, with her, for them.
  • Some prepositions can be used for both time and place: at, in, on.
  • Prepositional phrases add detail and clarity to sentences.

Clauses​

What are Clauses?​

  • Function: Groups of words that contain a subject and a predicate (verb). They form the building blocks of sentences.
  • Examples:
    1. I study English.
    2. When I arrive home.
    3. That she is smart.
  • Usage Example:
    1. I study English because it's important.
    2. When I arrive home, I will call you.

Types of Clauses​

  • Independent Clauses: Complete thoughts that can stand alone as sentences.
    1. I love pizza.
    2. She works hard.
    3. They are studying.
    • Usage Example: I love pizza, and she prefers pasta.
  • Dependent (Subordinate) Clauses: Incomplete thoughts that cannot stand alone; they need an independent clause.
    1. because it's raining
    2. when he arrives
    3. that I mentioned
    • Usage Example: I stayed home because it's raining.
  • Noun Clauses: Function as nouns in a sentence (subject, object, or complement).
    1. What she said is true.
    2. I know that you're right.
    3. The problem is what we discussed.
    • Usage Example: What you need is more practice.
  • Adjective (Relative) Clauses: Modify nouns or pronouns; usually begin with relative pronouns.
    1. The book that I read was interesting.
    2. The woman who called is my sister.
    3. The house where I lived was old.
    • Usage Example: The student who studies hard will succeed.
  • Adverb Clauses: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs; show time, place, reason, condition, etc.
    1. I'll call you when I arrive.
    2. She left because she was tired.
    3. If it rains, we'll stay inside.
    • Usage Example: Although it was late, we continued working.

Usage Tips​

  • Independent clauses can be joined with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so).
  • Dependent clauses need to be attached to independent clauses to form complete sentences.
  • Relative pronouns (who, which, that, where, when) introduce adjective clauses.

Conjunctions​

What are Conjunctions?​

  • Function: Connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences; they show relationships between connected elements.
  • Examples:
    1. and
    2. but
    3. or
    4. because
    5. although
    6. while
    7. if
    8. since
  • Usage Example:
    1. I like tea and coffee.
    2. She studied hard, so she passed the exam.
    3. Although it was raining, we went outside.

Types of Conjunctions​

  • Coordinating Conjunctions: Connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance.
    1. and (addition)
    2. but (contrast)
    3. or (choice)
    4. nor (negative choice)
    5. for (reason)
    6. so (result)
    7. yet (contrast)
    • Usage Example: I wanted to go, but it was too late.
  • Subordinating Conjunctions: Connect dependent clauses to independent clauses.
    1. because (reason)
    2. although (contrast)
    3. when (time)
    4. if (condition)
    5. since (time/reason)
    6. while (time/contrast)
    7. unless (condition)
    • Usage Example: I'll call you when I arrive home.
  • Compound Conjunctions: Made up of more than one word.
    1. as well as
    2. in order that
    3. as soon as
    4. even though
    5. so that
    • Usage Example: She worked hard so that she could succeed.
  • Correlative Conjunctions: Work in pairs to connect equal elements.
    1. both...and
    2. either...or
    3. neither...nor
    4. not only...but also
    5. whether...or
    • Usage Example: She is both smart and hardworking.
  • Pseudo Conjunctions: Words that function like conjunctions but are technically other parts of speech.
    1. however
    2. therefore
    3. moreover
    4. furthermore
    5. nevertheless
    • Usage Example: It was raining; however, we decided to go out.

Usage Tips​

  • Coordinating conjunctions can be remembered by the acronym FANBOYS (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So).
  • Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions when connecting independent clauses.
  • Subordinating conjunctions create dependent clauses that cannot stand alone.
  • Correlative conjunctions must be used in pairs and should connect parallel elements.

Conditionals​

What are Conditionals?​

  • Function: Express hypothetical situations and their consequences; show cause-and-effect relationships that depend on certain conditions.
  • Structure: If + condition, then + result (or result + if + condition)
  • Examples:
    1. If it rains, we will stay inside.
    2. I would travel if I had money.
    3. If she had studied, she would have passed.
  • Usage Example:
    1. If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.
    2. If I were you, I would accept the job.

Types of Conditionals​

  • Type 0 (Facts/General Truths): Express facts, scientific truths, or things that are always true.
    • Structure: If + simple present, simple present
    1. If you heat ice, it melts.
    2. If it rains, the ground gets wet.
    3. If you don't eat, you get hungry.
    • Usage Example: If you mix red and blue, you get purple.
  • Type 1 (Real Future): Express real possibilities in the future; likely to happen.
    • Structure: If + simple present, will + base verb
    1. If it rains tomorrow, I will stay home.
    2. If you study hard, you will pass the exam.
    3. If she calls, I will answer.
    • Usage Example: If we leave now, we will arrive on time.
  • Type 2 (Unreal Present): Express hypothetical or imaginary situations in the present; unlikely or impossible.
    • Structure: If + simple past, would + base verb
    1. If I were rich, I would buy a mansion.
    2. If he studied more, he would get better grades.
    3. If I had time, I would help you.
    • Usage Example: If I were you, I would take that opportunity.
  • Type 3 (Unreal Past): Express hypothetical situations in the past; things that didn't happen.
    • Structure: If + past perfect, would have + past participle
    1. If she had studied, she would have passed.
    2. If we had left earlier, we would have arrived on time.
    3. If he had called, I would have answered.
    • Usage Example: If I had known about the party, I would have attended.
  • Mixed Conditionals: Combine different time periods; mix Type 2 and Type 3.
    1. If I had studied medicine, I would be a doctor now. (past condition, present result)
    2. If I were more organized, I wouldn't have forgotten the meeting. (present condition, past result)
    • Usage Example: If she had saved money, she would be traveling now.

Common Conditional Words​

  • If: The most common conditional word
  • Unless: Means "if not"
    1. Unless you hurry, you will be late. (= If you don't hurry...)
  • When: For certain future events
    1. When I finish work, I will call you.
  • As soon as: For immediate future actions
    1. As soon as it stops raining, we will go out.
  • In case: For preparation or precaution
    1. Take an umbrella in case it rains.

Usage Tips​

  • Type 0: Use simple present in both clauses for facts and general truths.
  • Type 1: Use simple present after "if" and "will" in the main clause for real future possibilities.
  • Type 2: Use simple past after "if" and "would" in the main clause for unreal present situations.
  • Type 3: Use past perfect after "if" and "would have" in the main clause for unreal past situations.
  • The "if" clause can come first or second in the sentence; use a comma when it comes first.

Advanced Grammar​

Passive Voice vs Active Voice​

  • Function: Change the focus of a sentence from the subject (active) to the object (passive).
  • Active Voice: The subject performs the action.
    1. She wrote the letter.
    2. They are building a house.
    3. We will complete the project.
  • Passive Voice: The subject receives the action.
    1. The letter was written by her.
    2. A house is being built by them.
    3. The project will be completed by us.
  • Usage Example:
    • Active: The chef prepared the meal.
    • Passive: The meal was prepared by the chef.

When to Use Passive Voice​

  • When the action is more important than who does it.
    1. English is spoken worldwide.
    2. The building was constructed in 1920.
  • When the subject is unknown or unimportant.
    1. My car was stolen last night.
    2. Mistakes were made in the report.
  • In formal or scientific writing.
    1. The experiment was conducted carefully.
    2. The results were analyzed thoroughly.

Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)​

  • Function: Report what someone said without using their exact words.
  • Direct Speech: Using exact words with quotation marks.
    1. She said, "I am happy."
    2. He asked, "Where are you going?"
    3. They said, "We will come tomorrow."
  • Reported Speech: Reporting without quotation marks.
    1. She said that she was happy.
    2. He asked where I was going.
    3. They said that they would come the next day.

Changes in Reported Speech​

  • Pronouns: Change according to the speaker.
    1. "I am tired" → He said he was tired.
  • Tense: Usually moves one step back in time.
    1. Present → Past: "I work" → He said he worked.
    2. Past → Past Perfect: "I worked" → He said he had worked.
    3. Will → Would: "I will go" → He said he would go.
  • Time expressions: Change to match the reporting time.
    1. today → that day
    2. tomorrow → the next day
    3. yesterday → the day before

Common Mistakes​

  • Fewer vs Less: Use "fewer" with countable nouns, "less" with uncountable.
    1. Fewer people (countable)
    2. Less water (uncountable)
    3. Fewer books, less time
  • Then vs Than: "Then" for time, "than" for comparisons.
    1. First we eat, then we go. (time)
    2. She is taller than me. (comparison)
  • There vs Their vs They're: Different meanings and uses.
    1. There is a book on the table. (location/existence)
    2. Their house is big. (possessive)
    3. They're going home. (they are)
  • To vs Too vs Two: Different meanings and uses.
    1. I want to go. (infinitive/direction)
    2. It's too hot. (excessive)
    3. I have two cats. (number)

Usage Tips​

  • Use passive voice when the action or result is more important than the doer.
  • In reported speech, remember to change pronouns, tenses, and time expressions appropriately.
  • Practice common mistake pairs by creating example sentences for each usage.
  • Pay attention to countable vs uncountable nouns when choosing "fewer" or "less".

Common Idioms & Expressions​

  • Function: Use natural expressions that native speakers commonly use in conversations.
  • Conversation Starters & Social Idioms:
    1. break the ice - Let me break the ice with a joke.
    2. small talk - We made some small talk before the meeting.
    3. hit it off - We really hit it off at the party.
    4. get along - Do you get along with your coworkers?
    5. see eye to eye - We don't always see eye to eye.
  • Easy/Difficult Situations:
    1. piece of cake - The test was a piece of cake.
    2. no sweat - Fixing this computer? No sweat!
    3. over my head - This math problem is over my head.
    4. in hot water - He's in hot water with his boss.
    5. between a rock and a hard place - I'm between a rock and a hard place.
  • Time & Speed:
    1. in the nick of time - We arrived in the nick of time.
    2. time flies - Time flies when you're having fun.
    3. better late than never - Sorry I'm late, but better late than never.
    4. at the drop of a hat - She can sing at the drop of a hat.
    5. once in a blue moon - I eat fast food once in a blue moon.
  • Success & Accuracy:
    1. hit the nail on the head - You hit the nail on the head with that comment.
    2. on the right track - You're on the right track with this project.
    3. close but no cigar - Your answer was close but no cigar.
    4. back to square one - We're back to square one with this problem.
    5. the ball is in your court - I've done my part; the ball is in your court.
  • Weather & Nature Idioms:
    1. it's raining cats and dogs - It's raining cats and dogs outside.
    2. under the weather - I'm feeling under the weather today.
    3. every cloud has a silver lining - Don't worry, every cloud has a silver lining.
    4. calm before the storm - This quiet is the calm before the storm.
    5. when it rains, it pours - First my car broke down, then I lost my job - when it rains, it pours.
  • Money & Value:
    1. cost an arm and a leg - That car costs an arm and a leg.
    2. worth its weight in gold - This advice is worth its weight in gold.
    3. penny for your thoughts - You look deep in thought - penny for your thoughts?
    4. break the bank - Dinner at that restaurant won't break the bank.
    5. cut corners - Don't cut corners on this important project.
  • Usage Example: "The presentation was a piece of cake, and I hit the nail on the head with my main points. Time flies when you're doing something you enjoy!"

Collocations​

  • Function: Learn natural word combinations that native speakers use automatically.
  • Adjective + Noun Collocations:
    1. strong coffee (not powerful coffee)
    2. heavy rain (not strong rain)
    3. fast food (not quick food)
    4. high temperature (not tall temperature)
    5. deep sleep (not profound sleep)
  • Verb + Noun Collocations:
    1. make a decision (not take a decision)
    2. do homework (not make homework)
    3. take a shower (not make a shower)
    4. give advice (not say advice)
    5. pay attention (not give attention)
  • Verb + Preposition Collocations:
    1. depend on (not depend of)
    2. consist of (not consist in)
    3. apologize for (not apologize of)
    4. agree with (not agree to a person)
    5. succeed in (not succeed at)
  • Noun + Noun Collocations:
    1. traffic jam (not car jam)
    2. round trip (not circle trip)
    3. job interview (not work interview)
    4. computer screen (not computer monitor)
    5. research paper (not investigation paper)
  • Common Business Collocations:
    1. conduct research (not make research)
    2. attend a meeting (not assist a meeting)
    3. submit a report (not send a report)
    4. meet deadlines (not reach deadlines)
    5. achieve goals (not reach goals)
  • Usage Example: "I need to make a decision about the job offer. I'll conduct research on the company and submit my report before the deadline."

Word Formation​

What is Word Formation?​

  • Function: Build vocabulary systematically by understanding how words are created using prefixes, suffixes, and word combinations.
  • Benefits: Understand new words, improve vocabulary, communicate more precisely.

Common Prefixes​

  • Negative Prefixes:
    1. un- (unhappy, unclear, unfair)
    2. dis- (disagree, dislike, disappear)
    3. in- (incorrect, incomplete, invisible)
    4. im- (impossible, impatient, immature)
    5. ir- (irregular, irresponsible, irrelevant)
  • Other Common Prefixes:
    1. re- (redo, return, rebuild)
    2. pre- (preview, prepare, predict)
    3. over- (overeat, overtime, overdo)
    4. under- (understand, underwater, underpaid)
    5. mis- (mistake, misunderstand, mislead)
  • Usage Example: "I need to rewrite this report because it's incomplete and unclear."

Common Suffixes​

  • Noun Suffixes:
    1. -tion (education, information, creation)
    2. -ness (happiness, kindness, darkness)
    3. -ment (development, improvement, agreement)
    4. -er/-or (teacher, doctor, writer)
    5. -ity (quality, responsibility, activity)
  • Adjective Suffixes:
    1. -ful (helpful, useful, beautiful)
    2. -less (helpless, useless, careless)
    3. -able/-ible (comfortable, possible, terrible)
    4. -ous (famous, dangerous, nervous)
    5. -ive (active, creative, expensive)
  • Adverb Suffixes:
    1. -ly (quickly, carefully, easily)
    2. -ward (forward, backward, toward)
  • Usage Example: "The teacher's explanation was helpful and the activity was enjoyable, but some students were careless with their work."

Compound Words​

  • Function: Combine two or more words to create new meanings.
  • Noun + Noun:
    1. bedroom (bed + room)
    2. football (foot + ball)
    3. sunlight (sun + light)
    4. newspaper (news + paper)
    5. backpack (back + pack)
  • Adjective + Noun:
    1. blackboard (black + board)
    2. greenhouse (green + house)
    3. software (soft + ware)
    4. hardware (hard + ware)
    5. blueprint (blue + print)
  • Verb + Noun:
    1. breakfast (break + fast)
    2. sunset (sun + set)
    3. haircut (hair + cut)
    4. workout (work + out)
    5. cleanup (clean + up)
  • Usage Example: "Every morning at sunrise, I eat breakfast while reading the newspaper in my bedroom."

Word Formation Patterns​

  • Verb → Noun:
    1. educate → education
    2. develop → development
    3. teach → teacher
    4. write → writer
    5. create → creation
  • Adjective → Noun:
    1. happy → happiness
    2. kind → kindness
    3. responsible → responsibility
    4. active → activity
    5. possible → possibility
  • Noun → Adjective:
    1. care → careful/careless
    2. help → helpful/helpless
    3. use → useful/useless
    4. beauty → beautiful
    5. danger → dangerous
  • Usage Example: "The teacher's development of new activities shows her creativity and responsibility for student happiness."

Usage Tips​

  • Learn word families together (care, careful, careless, carefully, carelessly)
  • Use prefixes to understand opposite meanings (happy/unhappy, possible/impossible)
  • Practice compound words in context to remember their meanings
  • Build vocabulary systematically by learning common prefixes and suffixes

Writing Skills​

Four Sentence Types and Structures​

  • Function: Organize thoughts and communicate effectively in writing using different sentence types and structures.

Sentence Types​

  • Declarative Sentences: Make statements or provide information.
    1. The sun rises in the east.
    2. She works as a teacher.
    3. We are studying English.
    • Usage Example: I love reading books in my free time.
  • Interrogative Sentences: Ask questions.
    1. What time is it?
    2. Are you coming to the party?
    3. How do you spell your name?
    • Usage Example: Where did you learn to speak English so well?
  • Imperative Sentences: Give commands, make requests, or provide instructions.
    1. Close the door.
    2. Please help me with this.
    3. Turn left at the next corner.
    • Usage Example: Remember to bring your passport to the airport.
  • Exclamatory Sentences: Express strong emotion or surprise.
    1. What a beautiful day!
    2. How amazing this is!
    3. That's incredible!
    • Usage Example: What an excellent presentation you gave!

Sentence Structures​

  • Simple Sentences: One independent clause (subject + predicate).
    1. Birds fly.
    2. The cat sleeps.
    3. Students study hard.
    • Usage Example: The teacher explained the lesson clearly.
  • Compound Sentences: Two or more independent clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions.
    1. I study English, and my sister studies French.
    2. It was raining, but we went outside.
    3. You can stay here, or you can come with us.
    • Usage Example: The weather was cold, so we decided to stay inside.
  • Complex Sentences: One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
    1. Because it was late, we went home.
    2. The book that I read was interesting.
    3. When she arrives, we will start the meeting.
    • Usage Example: Although it was difficult, she passed the exam.
  • Compound-Complex Sentences: Two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
    1. When the rain stopped, we went outside, and the children played in the park.
    2. Because he studied hard, he passed the test, but his friend did not.
    • Usage Example: After we finished dinner, I washed the dishes, and my wife prepared dessert.

English Punctuation Marks​

  • Period (.): Ends declarative and imperative sentences.
    1. She is a doctor.
    2. Please sit down.
  • Comma (,): Separates items in a list, clauses, or phrases.
    1. I bought apples, oranges, and bananas.
    2. When I arrived, everyone was waiting.
  • Question Mark (?): Ends interrogative sentences.
    1. What is your name?
    2. Are you ready?
  • Exclamation Point (!): Ends exclamatory sentences or shows strong emotion.
    1. What a surprise!
    2. Help!
  • Semicolon (;): Connects closely related independent clauses.
    1. I love reading; it's my favorite hobby.
    2. She studied hard; therefore, she passed.
  • Colon (:): Introduces lists, explanations, or quotations.
    1. I need three things: milk, bread, and eggs.
    2. Remember this: practice makes perfect.
  • Apostrophe ('): Shows possession or contractions.
    1. John's car (possession)
    2. Don't go (contraction)
  • Quotation Marks (" "): Enclose direct speech or quotes.
    1. She said, "I'm happy."
    2. The word "beautiful" has many meanings.
  • Parentheses ( ): Enclose additional information.
    1. The meeting (which starts at 2 PM) is important.
    2. She lives in Paris (France).
  • Brackets [ ]: Enclose editorial additions or clarifications.
    1. He said, "I saw her [Mary] yesterday."
  • Dash (—): Shows sudden changes or emphasizes information.
    1. The weather was perfect—sunny and warm.
    2. I was thinking about dinner—pizza sounds good.
  • Hyphen (-): Connects compound words or word parts.
    1. twenty-one
    2. self-confident
  • Ellipsis (...): Shows omitted words or trailing thoughts.
    1. She said, "I think..."
    2. The list includes apples, oranges...
  • Slash (/): Shows alternatives or divisions.
    1. and/or
    2. 12/25/2023
  • Asterisk (*): Indicates footnotes or emphasis.
    1. See note below*
    2. *Important information

Usage Tips​

  • Use varied sentence types to make writing more interesting and engaging.
  • Combine simple sentences into compound or complex sentences to show relationships between ideas.
  • Always use appropriate punctuation to ensure clarity and proper meaning.
  • Practice writing different sentence structures to improve fluency and style.

Social Communication​

Introduction to English Speaking​

  • Function: Build confidence and skills for everyday English conversations in social settings.
  • Key Areas: Introductions, small talk, personal topics, and social interactions.

Introductions in Informal Settings​

  • Function: Meet new people and introduce yourself in casual, relaxed environments.
  • Common Phrases:
    1. Hi, I'm [name]. Nice to meet you!
    2. What's your name?
    3. How are you doing?
    4. Where are you from?
    5. This is my friend [name].
  • Usage Example: "Hi, I'm Sarah. Nice to meet you! Are you enjoying the party?"
  • Response Examples:
    1. Nice to meet you too!
    2. I'm doing great, thanks!
    3. I'm from [city/country].

Introductions in Formal Settings​

  • Function: Present yourself professionally in business or formal social situations.
  • Common Phrases:
    1. Good morning/afternoon. I'm [name].
    2. It's a pleasure to meet you.
    3. May I introduce myself?
    4. Allow me to introduce [name].
    5. I'd like you to meet [name].
  • Usage Example: "- Usage Example: "Good afternoon. I'm John Smith from ABC Company. It's a pleasure to meet you."
  • Response Examples:
    1. The pleasure is mine.
    2. How do you do?

Small Talk"​

  • Response Examples:
    1. The pleasure is mine.
    2. Pleased to make your acquaintance.
    3. How do you do?

Small Talk​

  • Function: Start and maintain light, friendly conversations to build rapport.
  • Common Topics:
    1. Weather: "Beautiful day, isn't it?"
    2. Weekend plans: "Any plans for the weekend?"
    3. Current events: "Did you hear about...?"
    4. Location: "Have you been here before?"
    5. Travel: "Are you from around here?"
  • Conversation Starters:
    1. How's your day going?
    2. This weather is amazing, isn't it?
    3. Have you tried the food here?
  • Usage Example: "How's your day going? I love this coffee shop - have you been here before?"

Hobbies and Interests​

  • Function: Share and discuss personal interests to connect with others.
  • Common Questions:
    1. What do you like to do in your free time?
    2. Do you have any hobbies?
    3. What are you interested in?
    4. Have you seen any good movies lately?
    5. Do you play any sports?
  • Sharing Your Interests:
    1. I really enjoy [hobby/activity].
    2. I'm into [interest].
    3. In my spare time, I like to [activity].
    4. I'm passionate about [topic].
    5. I love [activity/hobby].
  • Usage Example: "I really enjoy photography. I love capturing beautiful moments. What about you - do you have any hobbies?"

Family​

  • Function: Discuss family members and relationships in appropriate social contexts.
  • Common Questions:
    1. Do you have any siblings?
    2. Are you married?
    3. Do you have children?
    4. What does your family do?
    5. Where does your family live?
  • Talking About Family:
    1. I have [number] brothers/sisters.
    2. I'm married/single.
    3. I have [number] children.
    4. My family lives in [location].
    5. My [family member] works as a [profession].
  • Usage Example: "I have two sisters and one brother. My older sister is a teacher. Do you have any siblings?"

Conversation Flow Tips​

  • Listening Skills:
    1. Show interest: "That's interesting!"
    2. Ask follow-up questions: "Tell me more about that."
    3. Share similar experiences: "I've experienced that too."
  • Keeping Conversations Going:
    1. Use open-ended questions
    2. Share personal experiences
    3. Find common interests
    4. Be genuinely curious about others
  • Polite Endings:
    1. It was nice talking to you.
    2. I hope to see you again soon.
    3. Enjoy the rest of your day/evening.

Usage Tips​

  • Practice active listening and show genuine interest in others.
  • Start with safe, neutral topics before moving to personal subjects.
  • Use body language and facial expressions to show engagement.
  • Be prepared with a few conversation starters for different situations.

Professional Communication​

Introduction to Business Communication​

  • Function: Develop skills for effective communication in professional and workplace environments.
  • Key Areas: Business interactions, work routines, job searching, and career discussions.

Business Communication​

  • Function: Communicate effectively in professional settings, meetings, and business relationships.
  • Common Phrases:
    1. I'd like to schedule a meeting.
    2. Could we discuss this further?
    3. I appreciate your time.
    4. Let me get back to you on that.
    5. Thank you for your consideration.
  • Meeting Language:
    1. Shall we begin the meeting?
    2. I'd like to bring up an important point.
    3. What are your thoughts on this?
    4. Let's move on to the next agenda item.
    5. To summarize our discussion...
  • Usage Example: "Good morning everyone. I'd like to schedule a meeting to discuss the new project. Could we meet Thursday at 2 PM?"

Daily Work Routine​

  • Function: Discuss work schedules, daily tasks, and workplace activities.
  • Routine Descriptions:
    1. I start work at 9 AM every day.
    2. I have a lunch break from 12 to 1 PM.
    3. I usually finish work around 5:30 PM.
    4. I commute to work by train.
    5. I work from home on Fridays.
  • Work Activities:
    1. I attend meetings twice a week.
    2. I prepare reports monthly.
    3. I collaborate with my team daily.
    4. I handle customer inquiries.
    5. I manage project deadlines.
  • Time Management:
    1. I prioritize urgent tasks first.
    2. I plan my schedule in advance.
    3. I take short breaks between tasks.
    4. I review my progress weekly.
    5. I organize my workspace daily.
  • Usage Example: "I start work at 9 AM every day and usually attend meetings twice a week. How about you - what's your daily routine like?"

Job Hunting​

  • Function: Navigate the job search process and discuss employment opportunities.
  • Job Search:
    1. I'm looking for a new position.
    2. I've been job hunting for two months.
    3. I applied to several companies.
    4. I'm updating my resume.
    5. I'm networking with professionals.
  • Interview Language:
    1. I'm excited about this opportunity.
    2. I have experience in this field.
    3. I'm a team player.
    4. I'm detail-oriented and organized.
    5. I'm eager to learn and grow.
  • Qualifications:
    1. I have a degree in [field].
    2. I'm certified in [skill/area].
    3. I'm fluent in [languages].
    4. I'm proficient in [software/tools].
    5. I have [number] years of experience.
  • Follow-up:
    1. Thank you for your time today.
    2. I look forward to hearing from you.
    3. When can I expect to hear back?
    4. I'm very interested in this position.
    5. Please let me know if you need anything else.
  • Usage Example: "I'm looking for a new position in marketing. I have five years of experience and I'm certified in digital marketing. Are there any opportunities available?"

Unemployment/Career Transitions​

  • Function: Discuss career changes, unemployment periods, and professional development.
  • Employment Status:
    1. I'm currently between jobs.
    2. I'm taking time to find the right opportunity.
    3. I'm exploring different career options.
    4. I'm focusing on skill development.
    5. I'm considering a career change.
  • Career Development:
    1. I'm taking online courses to improve my skills.
    2. I'm attending networking events.
    3. I'm working with a career counselor.
    4. I'm volunteering to gain experience.
    5. I'm pursuing additional certifications.
  • Positive Framing:
    1. This is a great opportunity for growth.
    2. I'm excited about new possibilities.
    3. I'm using this time productively.
    4. I'm open to new challenges.
    5. I'm confident about my future.
  • Usage Example: "I'm currently between jobs and using this time to take online courses in data analysis. It's a great opportunity for growth and skill development."

Professional Etiquette​

  • Email Communication:
    1. Use clear, professional subject lines
    2. Begin with appropriate greetings
    3. Keep messages concise and relevant
    4. End with professional closings
    5. Proofread before sending
  • Phone Communication:
    1. Answer professionally with your name
    2. Speak clearly and at appropriate volume
    3. Listen actively and take notes
    4. Confirm important details
    5. End calls politely
  • Networking:
    1. Prepare your elevator pitch
    2. Ask thoughtful questions
    3. Follow up within 24-48 hours
    4. Offer value to your connections
    5. Maintain professional relationships

Usage Tips​

  • Practice professional vocabulary regularly in appropriate contexts.
  • Prepare common workplace scenarios and responses in advance.
  • Use positive language when discussing career challenges or changes.
  • Show enthusiasm and professionalism in all business communications.

Practical Communication Topics​

Introduction to Practical Topics​

  • Function: Master essential vocabulary and expressions for everyday situations and common conversation topics.
  • Key Areas: Countries, dates, directions, feelings, nature, holidays, money, numbers, and time.

Countries and Nationalities​

  • Function: Discuss origins, travel, and cultural backgrounds in conversations.
  • Countries:
    1. United States - American
    2. Canada - Canadian
    3. United Kingdom - British
    4. Brazil - Brazilian
    5. Japan - Japanese
  • Usage Questions:
    1. Where are you from?
    2. What's your nationality?
    3. Have you been to [country]?
    4. Which countries have you visited?
    5. What's it like in [country]?
  • Usage Example: "I'm from Brazil, so I'm Brazilian. I've visited Japan twice and I love Japanese culture. Where are you from originally?"

Dates​

  • Function: Express and understand specific dates, appointments, and time references.
  • Date Formats:
    1. January 15th, 2024
    2. 15th of January, 2024
    3. 01/15/2024 (US format)
    4. 15/01/2024 (International format)
    5. The fifteenth of January
  • Common Expressions:
    1. What's today's date?
    2. When is your birthday?
    3. The meeting is scheduled for...
    4. The deadline is on...
    5. Let's meet next Friday.
  • Usage Example: "What's today's date? I need to schedule the meeting for January 15th, 2024. When are you available?"

Days and Months​

  • Function: Plan schedules, discuss routines, and arrange appointments.
  • Days of the Week:
    1. Monday - I start work on Mondays.
    2. Wednesday - I have meetings on Wednesdays.
    3. Friday - I finish early on Fridays.
    4. Saturday - I relax on Saturdays.
    5. Sunday - I spend time with family on Sundays.
  • Months of the Year:
    1. January - New Year's resolutions
    2. April - Spring weather begins
    3. July - Summer vacation time
    4. October - Fall season starts
    5. December - Holiday celebrations
  • Usage Example: "I usually work Monday through Friday, but I'm free on weekends. In July, I plan to take a summer vacation."

Directions​

  • Function: Give and receive directions for navigation and location descriptions.
  • Basic Directions:
    1. Go straight ahead.
    2. Turn left at the traffic light.
    3. Turn right at the corner.
    4. It's on your left/right.
    5. Go past the bank and turn left.
  • Location Prepositions:
    1. next to the pharmacy
    2. across from the school
    3. between the restaurant and the store
    4. behind the shopping center
    5. in front of the library
  • Usage Example: "Go straight ahead for two blocks, then turn right at the traffic light. The restaurant is next to the pharmacy, across from the school."

Expressing Feelings​

  • Function: Share emotions and respond to others' emotional states appropriately.
  • Positive Feelings:
    1. I'm happy about the news.
    2. I feel excited about the trip.
    3. I'm grateful for your help.
    4. I'm proud of my achievement.
    5. I feel confident about the presentation.
  • Negative Feelings:
    1. I'm worried about the test.
    2. I feel frustrated with the situation.
    3. I'm disappointed about the cancellation.
    4. I feel stressed about work.
    5. I'm nervous about the interview.
  • Neutral/Mixed Feelings:
    1. I'm curious about the result.
    2. I feel confused about the instructions.
    3. I'm surprised by the outcome.
    4. I feel uncertain about the decision.
    5. I'm tired from the long day.
  • Usage Example: "I'm really excited about the trip, but I'm also nervous about flying. How do you feel about traveling?"

Geography and Nature​

  • Function: Discuss natural environments, weather patterns, and geographical features.
  • Geographical Features:
    1. mountain - We hiked up the mountain.
    2. river - The river flows through the city.
    3. ocean - I love swimming in the ocean.
    4. forest - We walked through the forest.
    5. desert - The desert is very hot and dry.
  • Natural Phenomena:
    1. sunrise - I watch the sunrise every morning.
    2. rainbow - There's a beautiful rainbow after the rain.
    3. thunderstorm - The thunderstorm was very intense.
    4. earthquake - We felt a small earthquake yesterday.
    5. volcano - The volcano is currently inactive.
  • Environmental Topics:
    1. climate change - Climate change affects everyone.
    2. pollution - We need to reduce air pollution.
    3. conservation - Wildlife conservation is important.
    4. recycling - I always separate items for recycling.
    5. renewable energy - Solar energy is renewable.
  • Usage Example: "I love hiking in the mountains and walking through forests. The sunrise from the mountain top is breathtaking. Do you enjoy outdoor activities?"

Holidays​

  • Function: Discuss celebrations, traditions, and cultural events throughout the year.
  • Major Holidays:
    1. New Year's Day - We celebrate with fireworks.
    2. Easter - Families gather for Easter dinner.
    3. Independence Day - We have barbecues and parades.
    4. Thanksgiving - We express gratitude for our blessings.
    5. Christmas - We exchange gifts and decorate trees.
  • Holiday Activities:
    1. We decorate the house.
    2. We prepare special meals.
    3. We visit family and friends.
    4. We attend religious services.
    5. We watch parades and fireworks.
  • Cultural Traditions:
    1. Each culture has unique traditions.
    2. We follow family customs.
    3. Food plays an important role.
    4. Stories and legends are shared.
    5. Music and dancing are common.
  • Usage Example: "Christmas is my favorite holiday because we decorate the house and prepare special meals together. What holidays do you celebrate with your family?"

Money​

  • Function: Discuss finances, shopping, and monetary transactions in daily life.
  • Currency and Values:
    1. dollar - It costs twenty dollars.
    2. cent - I have fifty cents change.
    3. credit card - I'll pay by credit card.
    4. cash - Do you accept cash?
    5. check - Can I write a check?
  • Shopping Language:
    1. How much does this cost?
    2. Is there a discount available?
    3. Can I get a receipt?
    4. Do you have this in a different size?
    5. I'd like to return this item.
  • Banking Terms:
    1. account - I need to open a bank account.
    2. deposit - I want to make a deposit.
    3. withdrawal - I need to make a withdrawal.
    4. loan - I'm applying for a car loan.
    5. interest - What's the interest rate?
  • Usage Example: "How much does this jacket cost? It's twenty dollars? Can I pay by credit card, or do you only accept cash?"

Numbers​

  • Function: Express quantities, measurements, and numerical information accurately.
  • Cardinal Numbers:
    1. one, two, three, four, five
    2. ten, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty
    3. one hundred, two hundred
    4. one thousand, two thousand
    5. one million, two million
  • Ordinal Numbers:
    1. first, second, third, fourth, fifth
    2. tenth, twentieth, thirtieth
    3. twenty-first, twenty-second
    4. one hundredth, one thousandth
    5. last, final, ultimate
  • Fractions and Decimals:
    1. one half (1/2), one third (1/3)
    2. two point five (2.5)
    3. zero point seven five (0.75)
    4. three quarters (3/4)
    5. one and a half (1.5)
  • Usage Example: "I have three hundred dollars in my account. The interest rate is two point five percent, which equals about twenty-five dollars per year."

Opposites​

  • Function: Express contrasts and comparisons using opposite concepts and vocabulary.
  • Size and Dimension:
    1. big / small - This car is big, that one is small.
    2. tall / short - He's tall, she's short.
    3. wide / narrow - The road is wide here but narrow there.
    4. thick / thin - This book is thick, that magazine is thin.
    5. deep / shallow - The ocean is deep, the puddle is shallow.
  • Speed and Movement:
    1. fast / slow - The train is fast, the bus is slow.
    2. quick / gradual - It was a quick decision vs. gradual improvement.
    3. early / late - I arrived early, you came late.
    4. forward / backward - Move forward, not backward.
    5. up / down - Go up the stairs, then down the hall.
  • Temperature and Feel:
    1. hot / cold - The coffee is hot, the ice cream is cold.
    2. warm / cool - It's warm today but cool tonight.
    3. wet / dry - My clothes are wet, yours are dry.
    4. hard / soft - This pillow is hard, that one is soft.
    5. rough / smooth - The bark is rough, the stone is smooth.
  • Usage Example: "The weather is hot today but it was cold yesterday. I prefer warm weather to cool weather. What about you?"

Question Words​

  • Function: Form questions and gather specific information in conversations.
  • Basic Question Words:
    1. What - What is your name?
    2. Who - Who is that person?
    3. Where - Where do you live?
    4. When - When did you arrive?
    5. Why - Why are you here?
  • Additional Question Forms:
    1. How - How are you doing?
    2. Which - Which book do you prefer?
    3. Whose - Whose car is that?
    4. How much - How much does it cost?
    5. How many - How many people are coming?
  • Complex Questions:
    1. How long - How long have you been here?
    2. How often - How often do you exercise?
    3. What kind - What kind of music do you like?
    4. How far - How far is the airport?
    5. What time - What time does the movie start?
  • Usage Example: "What is your favorite type of music? How often do you listen to it? Which artist do you like most and why?"

Seasons and Weather​

  • Function: Discuss weather conditions, seasonal changes, and climate-related topics.
  • Four Seasons:
    1. Spring - Flowers bloom in spring.
    2. Summer - It's hot and sunny in summer.
    3. Fall/Autumn - Leaves change color in fall.
    4. Winter - It snows frequently in winter.
    5. Year-round - Some places are warm year-round.
  • Weather Conditions:
    1. sunny - It's sunny and bright today.
    2. rainy - It's been rainy all week.
    3. cloudy - The sky is cloudy this morning.
    4. windy - It's too windy for a picnic.
    5. stormy - The weather forecast predicts stormy conditions.
  • Temperature Descriptions:
    1. freezing - It's freezing outside today.
    2. chilly - It's a bit chilly this evening.
    3. mild - The temperature is mild and pleasant.
    4. warm - It's warm enough for shorts.
    5. sweltering - It's sweltering hot in the sun.
  • Usage Example: "It's sunny and warm today, perfect weather for outdoor activities. In winter it gets freezing here, but spring is mild and pleasant."

Sports​

  • Function: Discuss athletic activities, competitions, and physical fitness topics.
  • Popular Sports:
    1. soccer/football - I play soccer every weekend.
    2. basketball - He's on the school basketball team.
    3. tennis - She loves playing tennis.
    4. swimming - Swimming is great exercise.
    5. running - I go running every morning.
  • Sports Equipment:
    1. ball - We need a new soccer ball.
    2. racket - My tennis racket needs new strings.
    3. shoes - I bought new running shoes.
    4. helmet - Always wear a helmet when cycling.
    5. uniform - The team has new uniforms this year.
  • Sports Actions:
    1. kick - Kick the ball toward the goal.
    2. throw - Throw the basketball through the hoop.
    3. hit - Hit the tennis ball over the net.
    4. catch - Catch the baseball with your glove.
    5. score - Our team scored three goals.
  • Usage Example: "I play soccer every weekend and go swimming twice a week. Soccer helps improve my coordination, and swimming is great for overall fitness."

Telling Time​

  • Function: Express and understand time references for scheduling and daily activities.
  • Basic Time:
    1. It's three o'clock.
    2. It's half past four. (4:30)
    3. It's quarter to six. (5:45)
    4. It's quarter after seven. (7:15)
    5. It's twenty minutes to nine. (8:40)
  • Time Periods:
    1. morning - I exercise in the morning.
    2. afternoon - We have lunch in the afternoon.
    3. evening - I relax in the evening.
    4. night - I sleep at night.
    5. midnight - The store closes at midnight.
  • Time Expressions:
    1. on time - Please arrive on time.
    2. early - I usually arrive early.
    3. late - Sorry I'm late!
    4. soon - I'll call you soon.
    5. later - We'll discuss this later.
  • Usage Example: "What time is it now? It's quarter past three. I have a meeting at half past four, so I need to leave soon."

Usage Tips​

  • Practice these practical topics regularly in real-life situations.
  • Combine different topics in conversations (e.g., weather + activities, countries + travel).
  • Use specific examples and personal experiences to make conversations more engaging.
  • Master question words to gather information and keep conversations flowing.